Living in DACH German A1 for a spouse visa: what Germany, Austria and Switzerland require Who needs German A1 to join their spouse, which certificate counts and how long it takes to get there. Reading time: 11 minutes | Category: Living in DACH If you are a non-EU citizen joining your husband or wife in Germany or Austria, you will usually need a German A1 certificate before you get your visa or first residence permit. The A1 exams from Goethe, telc and ÖSD are all accepted and carry the same weight, and the certificate should generally be no older than one year. Switzerland is more flexible: if your partner is a non-EU/EFTA citizen with a B or C permit, spoken A1 or enrolment in a course leading to A1 is enough. Starting from zero, A1 takes about 3 months in an intensive course or about 6 months in an extensive one, plus a few weeks of exam practice. There are exceptions, and they are not always where couples expect them. In Germany, for example, the nationality exemption depends on your partner's nationality, not yours, and several other exemptions depend on your partner's residence title. Below you will find the rules for all three countries, which certificates count, what actually happens in the A1 exam, and some advice from the examiner's side of the table. Germany: the rule and the exceptions Section 30 of the German Residence Act (Aufenthaltsgesetz) says that a spouse joining their partner must be able to communicate in German at least at a basic level. In practice, that means A1. The same rule applies, with some special provisions on what is reasonable to ask, when the partner in Germany is a German citizen (Section 28). It does not matter whether your partner was born in Germany or moved there. For several of the exemptions below, what counts is the nationality and residence title of the person already living in Germany. When you do not need an A1 certificate Your partner is in Germany as a skilled worker: EU Blue Card, ICT Card, a residence title as a skilled worker (Sections 18a and 18b), as a researcher (Section 18d) or as a self-employed person (Section 21), among others. Make it in Germany says that in these cases no particular level of German is usually required.Your partner holds certain nationalities: Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom or the United States.Your partner is an EU, EEA or Swiss citizen living in Germany under freedom of movement, for example a French citizen working in Munich.Illness or disability makes it impossible for you to prove German skills.Your integration needs are clearly low. This usually means a university degree plus a positive integration outlook. A degree alone is not enough.Your German is obvious, roughly at B2 level and clear straight away. The German Embassy in Mexico does not hold language interviews, so bring proof of how you learned. If there is any doubt, you will need a certificate.Learning German is impossible or unreasonable in your individual case. The German Embassy in Mexico gives one year of serious, unsuccessful effort as a guideline.You are the parent with custody of a minor German child.Your partner has asylum or international protection in Germany (certain titles) and you were already married when they moved to Germany. Some examples. Priya is Indian and married to a German living in Stuttgart: she needs A1. Kwame is Ghanaian, works in Hamburg on a Blue Card, and his wife is joining him: she does not need A1. Ana is Brazilian and her husband is American and lives in Berlin: no A1 needed, because of his nationality. If both partners are, say, Nigerian, Filipino or Mexican, the nationality exemption does not apply. Section 41 also has a narrower rule for Brazil, El Salvador, Honduras, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino that only covers people not working in Germany; if that is your situation, ask the embassy. In every case, the embassy has the final word. This article is about spouses. Different rules apply to children. If you are planning the whole move, our guide to moving to Germany may help, and our article on the skilled immigration law explains the work permits mentioned above. Austria: German before arrival Austria calls its rule Deutsch vor Zuzug, German before immigration (Section 21a of the Settlement and Residence Act, NAG). Non-EU citizens aged 14 and over who apply for certain residence titles for the first time, including titles for family members, must show German at A1 level. The law is explicit that the certificate must not be older than one year when you submit it. According to the official Work in Austria platform, certificates from ÖIF, ÖSD, telc and the Goethe-Institut are generally accepted. Exemptions exist for children under 14, for health reasons (with an official medical report), for family members of holders of certain titles such as the EU Blue Card or the permit for very highly qualified workers, and for family members of people with protection status. Work in Austria also mentions that a university degree or university entrance qualification can replace the A1 certificate. EU, EEA and Swiss citizens living in Austria under freedom of movement, and their family members, are not affected. If your spouse is Austrian, however, you will normally apply for the Familienangehöriger title, and that title does require A1. Later on, Module 1 of the Integration Agreement (Integrationsvereinbarung) requires A2. Switzerland: spoken A1 or a course If your partner is a non-EU/EFTA citizen living in Switzerland with a B or C permit, family reunification requires spoken A1 or enrolment in a language course leading to A1 (Articles 43 and 44 of the Foreign Nationals and Integration Act). This is how the Canton of Zurich's migration office explains it. Accepted certificates include telc, Goethe, ÖSD and fide. It must be the national language spoken where you will live, so in Geneva or Lausanne it would be French. For the settlement permit (C) later on, you will need A2 spoken and A1 written. If your partner is a Swiss or EU/EFTA citizen, the rules may differ. Check with the cantonal migration office or the Swiss embassy. Germany, Austria and Switzerland compared GermanyAustriaSwitzerlandWhat is requiredA1 before the visaA1 before the first residence titleSpoken A1 or course enrolment (non-EU/EFTA partner with B or C permit)CertificatesA1 exams from ALTE members, including Goethe, telc, ÖSDGenerally ÖIF, ÖSD, telc, GoetheIncluding telc, Goethe, ÖSD, fideCertificate ageUsually one year at mostOne year at most when submittedAsk the cantonCommon exemptionsPartner with Blue Card or skilled worker title, certain nationalities of the partner, EU/EEA/Swiss, healthUnder 14, health, family of certain title holdersDisability, illness or other important reasons; case by caseLaterIntegration courseA2 (Module 1)A2 spoken, A1 written for a C permit Which certificates are accepted German missions abroad accept exams from providers that meet the standards of ALTE, the Association of Language Testers in Europe. At A1, the usual choices are the Goethe-Zertifikat A1: Start Deutsch 1, telc Deutsch A1 (Start Deutsch 1) and the ÖSD Zertifikat A1. All three are equivalent. According to the German Federal Foreign Office, it does not matter in which country you take the exam. Course attendance letters and other certificates do not count. Two practical points. Submit the complete certificate with every part passed, and check the date. If you retook a module, the Federal Foreign Office counts the date of the oldest module you passed. Each embassy publishes its own information sheet, and that sheet is what counts for your application. If you are choosing between providers, our comparison of ÖSD and Goethe explains the differences. For what each certificate is used for, see our guide TestDaF, ÖSD, Goethe or telc. Inside the A1 exam: the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 The ÖSD Zertifikat A1 has two modules, written and oral, which you can take together or separately. If you pass both within one year at the same exam centre, you get one certificate showing both. For a visa application, taking both modules in the same session keeps things simple. Reading: 25 minutes, 3 tasks. Signs, ads, short messages.Listening: about 10 minutes, 3 tasks. Announcements and short everyday conversations.Writing: 20 minutes. Filling in a form and writing a short text.Speaking: about 10 minutes, one candidate and two examiners. You introduce yourself, describe a simple picture and do a role play. Three examples Introducing yourself. „Ich heiße Priya. Ich komme aus Indien und wohne in Pune. Ich bin Lehrerin. Mein Mann wohnt in Stuttgart.“ (My name is Priya. I am from India and live in Pune. I am a teacher. My husband lives in Stuttgart.) Filling in a form. For example, signing up at a gym: Vorname (first name), Familienname (surname), Geburtsdatum (date of birth), Straße, Hausnummer (street, house number), Telefon. It looks easy, but first name and surname get swapped more often than you would think. Role play. You get a card with a situation and have to ask for something: „Entschuldigung, wann fährt der Bus zum Bahnhof?“ (Excuse me, when does the bus to the station leave?) or „Ich möchte zwei Brötchen, bitte.“ (Two bread rolls, please.) Tips from an examiner Prepare your introduction, but do not recite it word for word. We almost always ask a follow-up question.If you do not understand, ask: „Noch einmal, bitte.“ That shows you can communicate. It does not cost you points.In the writing task, cover every point the task asks for with at least one sentence. Short and complete beats long with a point missing.In listening, read the questions before the recording starts. You do not need every word.Short, correct sentences are enough. Nobody expects complex grammar at A1. For more on preparation, see how to prepare for the ÖSD exam. How long it takes to reach A1 In our courses, A1 is split into two sublevels, A1.1 and A1.2. Each sublevel has 60 hours: 30 hours of live classes in the virtual classroom and 30 guided hours on the learning platform. Intensive course: two or more sessions a week, about 6 weeks per sublevel. Full A1 in about 3 months.Extensive course: one 2.5-hour session a week, about 3 months per sublevel. Full A1 in about 6 months. Add a few weeks of practice with model exams, and allow time for registration, results and your visa paperwork. If you already know some German, the free placement test (about 30 minutes, assessed by ÖSD examiners) shows where to start. For realistic timelines at every level, read how long it takes to learn German. Every course has two teachers qualified in German as a foreign language and one online tutor, with a maximum of 16 people. Between classes you can also use DAIna, a simulation of everyday conversations that complements your lessons. A1.1 comes with an automatic 10 % discount; other discounts are listed on our discounts page. Discounts cannot be combined; the maximum is always 10 %. Taking the exam in Buenos Aires or in your own country Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires is an ÖSD exam centre with the code ARG 001. We hold the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 on paper, in person in Buenos Aires. Details are on our ÖSD certificates page. Our own students, students at public institutions in Argentina and healthcare workers get 15 % off the ÖSD exam fee, separate from any course discount. If you live elsewhere, you can take the exam with Goethe, telc or ÖSD in your own country, wherever there is a centre. All three count the same for the embassy. After you arrive A1 is a starting point. In Germany, most people go on to an integration course. In Austria, Module 1 of the Integration Agreement later requires A2. In Switzerland, the C permit requires A2 spoken and A1 written. It helps to keep learning without a long break while the exam material is still fresh. To get started, take the placement test or browse all courses. If you have questions about learning German, write to us. For legal questions, we can tell you what to ask your embassy. Frequently asked questions Do I need German A1 for a spouse visa to Germany? In most cases, yes. Section 30 of the German Residence Act requires the joining spouse to be able to communicate in basic German, which means A1. You do not need it, for example, if your partner in Germany holds an EU Blue Card or a skilled worker title, or is a citizen of a country such as the United States or Canada. The embassy decides each case. Which German A1 certificate does the embassy accept? German embassies accept A1 exams from providers that meet ALTE standards, including the Goethe-Zertifikat A1, telc Deutsch A1 and the ÖSD Zertifikat A1. All three are equivalent. Course attendance letters are not accepted. How old can my A1 certificate be? For Germany, several embassies require the exam to be generally no older than one year. In Austria, the law says the certificate must not be older than one year when you submit it. Check the deadline on your embassy's information sheet. Does my nationality exempt me from the A1 requirement? In Germany, the nationality exemption depends on your partner's nationality, not yours. It covers partners who are citizens of Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom or the United States. A narrower rule exists for Brazil, El Salvador, Honduras, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino; ask the embassy whether it applies to you. How long does it take to pass German A1 from scratch? Full A1 (A1.1 and A1.2) takes about 3 months in an intensive course and about 6 months in an extensive course. Plan a few extra weeks of exam practice. Can I take the A1 exam in Buenos Aires? Yes. Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires is ÖSD exam centre ARG 001 and holds the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 on paper, in person in Buenos Aires. Elsewhere, you can take Goethe, telc or ÖSD at a local centre. This article is not legal advice. It summarises the published rules as of October 2026. The embassy or the responsible immigration authority always makes the binding decision. About the authorDaniel is a political scientist, German language teacher and ÖSD examiner at Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires, the official ÖSD exam centre in Argentina. He has guided course participants from their first level to the exam for years and knows the typical questions and hurdles of learning German.SourcesGerman Residence Act, Section 30 (spouse reunification, in German)German Residence Act, Section 28 (family of German citizens, in German)German Residence Ordinance, Section 41 (in German)Make it in Germany: spouse reunification with non-EU citizens (in German)German Embassy Mexico: information sheet on proof of German for spouses (in German)German Federal Foreign Office: FAQ on proof of German (in German)Austria: Settlement and Residence Act, Section 21a (in German)Work in Austria: German language skills (in German)Canton of Zurich: language requirements brochure (in German)ÖSD: ÖSD Zertifikat A1ÖSD: Zertifikat A1 leaflet (PDF)
Reading time: 11 minutes | Category: Living in DACH If you are a non-EU citizen joining your husband or wife in Germany or Austria, you will usually need a German A1 certificate before you get your visa or first residence permit. The A1 exams from Goethe, telc and ÖSD are all accepted and carry the same weight, and the certificate should generally be no older than one year. Switzerland is more flexible: if your partner is a non-EU/EFTA citizen with a B or C permit, spoken A1 or enrolment in a course leading to A1 is enough. Starting from zero, A1 takes about 3 months in an intensive course or about 6 months in an extensive one, plus a few weeks of exam practice. There are exceptions, and they are not always where couples expect them. In Germany, for example, the nationality exemption depends on your partner's nationality, not yours, and several other exemptions depend on your partner's residence title. Below you will find the rules for all three countries, which certificates count, what actually happens in the A1 exam, and some advice from the examiner's side of the table. Germany: the rule and the exceptions Section 30 of the German Residence Act (Aufenthaltsgesetz) says that a spouse joining their partner must be able to communicate in German at least at a basic level. In practice, that means A1. The same rule applies, with some special provisions on what is reasonable to ask, when the partner in Germany is a German citizen (Section 28). It does not matter whether your partner was born in Germany or moved there. For several of the exemptions below, what counts is the nationality and residence title of the person already living in Germany. When you do not need an A1 certificate Your partner is in Germany as a skilled worker: EU Blue Card, ICT Card, a residence title as a skilled worker (Sections 18a and 18b), as a researcher (Section 18d) or as a self-employed person (Section 21), among others. Make it in Germany says that in these cases no particular level of German is usually required.Your partner holds certain nationalities: Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom or the United States.Your partner is an EU, EEA or Swiss citizen living in Germany under freedom of movement, for example a French citizen working in Munich.Illness or disability makes it impossible for you to prove German skills.Your integration needs are clearly low. This usually means a university degree plus a positive integration outlook. A degree alone is not enough.Your German is obvious, roughly at B2 level and clear straight away. The German Embassy in Mexico does not hold language interviews, so bring proof of how you learned. If there is any doubt, you will need a certificate.Learning German is impossible or unreasonable in your individual case. The German Embassy in Mexico gives one year of serious, unsuccessful effort as a guideline.You are the parent with custody of a minor German child.Your partner has asylum or international protection in Germany (certain titles) and you were already married when they moved to Germany. Some examples. Priya is Indian and married to a German living in Stuttgart: she needs A1. Kwame is Ghanaian, works in Hamburg on a Blue Card, and his wife is joining him: she does not need A1. Ana is Brazilian and her husband is American and lives in Berlin: no A1 needed, because of his nationality. If both partners are, say, Nigerian, Filipino or Mexican, the nationality exemption does not apply. Section 41 also has a narrower rule for Brazil, El Salvador, Honduras, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino that only covers people not working in Germany; if that is your situation, ask the embassy. In every case, the embassy has the final word. This article is about spouses. Different rules apply to children. If you are planning the whole move, our guide to moving to Germany may help, and our article on the skilled immigration law explains the work permits mentioned above. Austria: German before arrival Austria calls its rule Deutsch vor Zuzug, German before immigration (Section 21a of the Settlement and Residence Act, NAG). Non-EU citizens aged 14 and over who apply for certain residence titles for the first time, including titles for family members, must show German at A1 level. The law is explicit that the certificate must not be older than one year when you submit it. According to the official Work in Austria platform, certificates from ÖIF, ÖSD, telc and the Goethe-Institut are generally accepted. Exemptions exist for children under 14, for health reasons (with an official medical report), for family members of holders of certain titles such as the EU Blue Card or the permit for very highly qualified workers, and for family members of people with protection status. Work in Austria also mentions that a university degree or university entrance qualification can replace the A1 certificate. EU, EEA and Swiss citizens living in Austria under freedom of movement, and their family members, are not affected. If your spouse is Austrian, however, you will normally apply for the Familienangehöriger title, and that title does require A1. Later on, Module 1 of the Integration Agreement (Integrationsvereinbarung) requires A2. Switzerland: spoken A1 or a course If your partner is a non-EU/EFTA citizen living in Switzerland with a B or C permit, family reunification requires spoken A1 or enrolment in a language course leading to A1 (Articles 43 and 44 of the Foreign Nationals and Integration Act). This is how the Canton of Zurich's migration office explains it. Accepted certificates include telc, Goethe, ÖSD and fide. It must be the national language spoken where you will live, so in Geneva or Lausanne it would be French. For the settlement permit (C) later on, you will need A2 spoken and A1 written. If your partner is a Swiss or EU/EFTA citizen, the rules may differ. Check with the cantonal migration office or the Swiss embassy. Germany, Austria and Switzerland compared GermanyAustriaSwitzerlandWhat is requiredA1 before the visaA1 before the first residence titleSpoken A1 or course enrolment (non-EU/EFTA partner with B or C permit)CertificatesA1 exams from ALTE members, including Goethe, telc, ÖSDGenerally ÖIF, ÖSD, telc, GoetheIncluding telc, Goethe, ÖSD, fideCertificate ageUsually one year at mostOne year at most when submittedAsk the cantonCommon exemptionsPartner with Blue Card or skilled worker title, certain nationalities of the partner, EU/EEA/Swiss, healthUnder 14, health, family of certain title holdersDisability, illness or other important reasons; case by caseLaterIntegration courseA2 (Module 1)A2 spoken, A1 written for a C permit Which certificates are accepted German missions abroad accept exams from providers that meet the standards of ALTE, the Association of Language Testers in Europe. At A1, the usual choices are the Goethe-Zertifikat A1: Start Deutsch 1, telc Deutsch A1 (Start Deutsch 1) and the ÖSD Zertifikat A1. All three are equivalent. According to the German Federal Foreign Office, it does not matter in which country you take the exam. Course attendance letters and other certificates do not count. Two practical points. Submit the complete certificate with every part passed, and check the date. If you retook a module, the Federal Foreign Office counts the date of the oldest module you passed. Each embassy publishes its own information sheet, and that sheet is what counts for your application. If you are choosing between providers, our comparison of ÖSD and Goethe explains the differences. For what each certificate is used for, see our guide TestDaF, ÖSD, Goethe or telc. Inside the A1 exam: the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 The ÖSD Zertifikat A1 has two modules, written and oral, which you can take together or separately. If you pass both within one year at the same exam centre, you get one certificate showing both. For a visa application, taking both modules in the same session keeps things simple. Reading: 25 minutes, 3 tasks. Signs, ads, short messages.Listening: about 10 minutes, 3 tasks. Announcements and short everyday conversations.Writing: 20 minutes. Filling in a form and writing a short text.Speaking: about 10 minutes, one candidate and two examiners. You introduce yourself, describe a simple picture and do a role play. Three examples Introducing yourself. „Ich heiße Priya. Ich komme aus Indien und wohne in Pune. Ich bin Lehrerin. Mein Mann wohnt in Stuttgart.“ (My name is Priya. I am from India and live in Pune. I am a teacher. My husband lives in Stuttgart.) Filling in a form. For example, signing up at a gym: Vorname (first name), Familienname (surname), Geburtsdatum (date of birth), Straße, Hausnummer (street, house number), Telefon. It looks easy, but first name and surname get swapped more often than you would think. Role play. You get a card with a situation and have to ask for something: „Entschuldigung, wann fährt der Bus zum Bahnhof?“ (Excuse me, when does the bus to the station leave?) or „Ich möchte zwei Brötchen, bitte.“ (Two bread rolls, please.) Tips from an examiner Prepare your introduction, but do not recite it word for word. We almost always ask a follow-up question.If you do not understand, ask: „Noch einmal, bitte.“ That shows you can communicate. It does not cost you points.In the writing task, cover every point the task asks for with at least one sentence. Short and complete beats long with a point missing.In listening, read the questions before the recording starts. You do not need every word.Short, correct sentences are enough. Nobody expects complex grammar at A1. For more on preparation, see how to prepare for the ÖSD exam. How long it takes to reach A1 In our courses, A1 is split into two sublevels, A1.1 and A1.2. Each sublevel has 60 hours: 30 hours of live classes in the virtual classroom and 30 guided hours on the learning platform. Intensive course: two or more sessions a week, about 6 weeks per sublevel. Full A1 in about 3 months.Extensive course: one 2.5-hour session a week, about 3 months per sublevel. Full A1 in about 6 months. Add a few weeks of practice with model exams, and allow time for registration, results and your visa paperwork. If you already know some German, the free placement test (about 30 minutes, assessed by ÖSD examiners) shows where to start. For realistic timelines at every level, read how long it takes to learn German. Every course has two teachers qualified in German as a foreign language and one online tutor, with a maximum of 16 people. Between classes you can also use DAIna, a simulation of everyday conversations that complements your lessons. A1.1 comes with an automatic 10 % discount; other discounts are listed on our discounts page. Discounts cannot be combined; the maximum is always 10 %. Taking the exam in Buenos Aires or in your own country Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires is an ÖSD exam centre with the code ARG 001. We hold the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 on paper, in person in Buenos Aires. Details are on our ÖSD certificates page. Our own students, students at public institutions in Argentina and healthcare workers get 15 % off the ÖSD exam fee, separate from any course discount. If you live elsewhere, you can take the exam with Goethe, telc or ÖSD in your own country, wherever there is a centre. All three count the same for the embassy. After you arrive A1 is a starting point. In Germany, most people go on to an integration course. In Austria, Module 1 of the Integration Agreement later requires A2. In Switzerland, the C permit requires A2 spoken and A1 written. It helps to keep learning without a long break while the exam material is still fresh. To get started, take the placement test or browse all courses. If you have questions about learning German, write to us. For legal questions, we can tell you what to ask your embassy. Frequently asked questions Do I need German A1 for a spouse visa to Germany? In most cases, yes. Section 30 of the German Residence Act requires the joining spouse to be able to communicate in basic German, which means A1. You do not need it, for example, if your partner in Germany holds an EU Blue Card or a skilled worker title, or is a citizen of a country such as the United States or Canada. The embassy decides each case. Which German A1 certificate does the embassy accept? German embassies accept A1 exams from providers that meet ALTE standards, including the Goethe-Zertifikat A1, telc Deutsch A1 and the ÖSD Zertifikat A1. All three are equivalent. Course attendance letters are not accepted. How old can my A1 certificate be? For Germany, several embassies require the exam to be generally no older than one year. In Austria, the law says the certificate must not be older than one year when you submit it. Check the deadline on your embassy's information sheet. Does my nationality exempt me from the A1 requirement? In Germany, the nationality exemption depends on your partner's nationality, not yours. It covers partners who are citizens of Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom or the United States. A narrower rule exists for Brazil, El Salvador, Honduras, Andorra, Monaco and San Marino; ask the embassy whether it applies to you. How long does it take to pass German A1 from scratch? Full A1 (A1.1 and A1.2) takes about 3 months in an intensive course and about 6 months in an extensive course. Plan a few extra weeks of exam practice. Can I take the A1 exam in Buenos Aires? Yes. Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires is ÖSD exam centre ARG 001 and holds the ÖSD Zertifikat A1 on paper, in person in Buenos Aires. Elsewhere, you can take Goethe, telc or ÖSD at a local centre. This article is not legal advice. It summarises the published rules as of October 2026. The embassy or the responsible immigration authority always makes the binding decision. About the authorDaniel is a political scientist, German language teacher and ÖSD examiner at Sprachzentrum Buenos Aires, the official ÖSD exam centre in Argentina. He has guided course participants from their first level to the exam for years and knows the typical questions and hurdles of learning German.SourcesGerman Residence Act, Section 30 (spouse reunification, in German)German Residence Act, Section 28 (family of German citizens, in German)German Residence Ordinance, Section 41 (in German)Make it in Germany: spouse reunification with non-EU citizens (in German)German Embassy Mexico: information sheet on proof of German for spouses (in German)German Federal Foreign Office: FAQ on proof of German (in German)Austria: Settlement and Residence Act, Section 21a (in German)Work in Austria: German language skills (in German)Canton of Zurich: language requirements brochure (in German)ÖSD: ÖSD Zertifikat A1ÖSD: Zertifikat A1 leaflet (PDF)
